Herbal symbolism what role the plants play in magick

by Mother Oak
Herb ~ Symbolic Value or Use in Magick

# Acacia ~ protection
# Adders Tongue ~ healing
# African Violet ~ spirituality, protection
# Agrimony ~ protection, sleep
# Alfalfa ~ prosperity, anti-hunger, money
# Allspice ~ money, luck, healing
# Almond ~ money, prosperity, wisdom
# Aloe ~ protection, luck
# Aloes, Wood ~ love, spirituality
# Althea ~ protection
# Alyssum ~ protection, moderating anger
# Amaranth ~ healing, protection
# Anemone ~ health, protection, healing
# Angelica ~ exorcism, protection, healing, visions
# Apple ~ love, healing, garden magick
# Apricot ~ love
# Arabic Gum ~ purify negativity
# Asafoetida ~ exorcism, purification, protection
# Ash ~ protection, prosperity, sea rituals, health
# Aspen ~ eloquence, anti-theft
# Aster ~ love
# Avens ~ exorcism, purification, love
# Avocado ~ love, lust, beauty
# Balm, Lemon ~ love, success, healing
# Balm of Gilead ~ love, manifestations, protection, healing
# Bamboo ~ protection, luck, hex-breaking, wishes
# Banana ~ fertility, potency, prosperity
# Banyan ~ luck
# Barley ~ love, healing, protection
# Basil ~ love, exorcism, wealth, flying, protection
# Bay ~ protection, healing, purification, strength
# Beech ~ wishes
# Beet ~ love
# Benzoin ~ purification, prosperity
# Be-Still ~ luck
# Betony Wood ~ protection, purification, love
# Birch ~ protection, exorcism, purification
# Bistort ~ fertility
# Bittersweet ~ protection, healing
# Blackberry ~ healing, money, protection
# Bladderwrack ~ protection, sea spells, wind spells, money
# Bleeding Heart ~ love
# Bloodroot ~ love, protection, purification
# Bluebell ~ luck, truth, constancy, strength
# Blueberry ~ protection
# Blue Flag ~ money
# Bodhi ~ fertility, protection, wisdom, meditation
# Boneset ~ protection, exorcism
# Borage ~ courage
# Bracken ~ healing, rune magick, prophetic dreams
# Brazil Nut ~ love
# Bromeliad ~ protection, money
# Broom ~ purification, protection, wind spells, divination
# Buchu ~ prophetic dreams
# Buckthorn ~ protection, exorcism, wishes, legal matters
# Buckwheat ~ money, protection
# Burdock ~ protection, healing
# Buttercup ~ prosperity, happiness
# Cabbage ~ luck
# Cactus ~ protection, chastity
# Calamus ~ luck, healing, money, protection
# Camellia ~ riches, gratitude, prosperity
# Camphor ~ chastity, health, divination
# Caper ~ potency, lust, luck
# Caraway ~ protection, lust, health, anti-theft, mental powers
# Cardamon ~ lust, love
# Carnation ~ protection, strength, healing
# Carob ~ protection, health
# Carrot ~ fertility, lust
# Cascara Sagrada ~ legal matters, money, protection,
# Cashew ~ money
# Castor ~ protection
# Catnip ~ cat magick, love, beauty, happiness
# Cattail ~ lust
# Cedar ~ healing, purification, money, protection
# Celery ~ mental powers, lust
# Chamomile ~ money, sleep, love, purification
# Cherry ~ love, divination
# Chestnut ~ love
# Chickweed ~ fertility, love
# Chicory ~ removing obstacles, favors, frigidity
# Chili pepper ~ fidelity, hex breaking, love
# China Berry ~ luck
# Chrysanthemum ~ protection
# Cinchona ~ luck, protection
# Cinnamon ~ spirituality, success, healing, power, lust, protection, love
# Cinquefoil ~ money, protection, prophetic dreams, sleep
# Citron ~ healing
# Clove ~ protection, exorcism, gossip, love, money
# Clover ~ protection, money, love, fidelity, exorcism, success
# Club Moss ~ protection, power
# Coconut ~ purification, protection, chastity
# Columbine ~ courage, love
# Comfrey ~ Safety During travel, money
# Copal ~ love, purification
# Coriander ~ love, health, healing
# Corn ~ protection, luck, divination
# Cotton ~ luck, healing, protection, rain, fishing magick
# Cowslip ~ healing, youth, treasure finding
# Crocus ~ love, visions
# Cuckoo Flower ~ fertility, lover
# Cucumber ~ chastity, healing, fertility
# Cumin ~ protection, fidelity, exorcism
# Curry ~ protection
# Cyclamen ~ fertility, protection, happiness, lust
# Cypress ~ longevity, healing, comfort, protection
# Daffodil ~ love, fertility, luck
# Daisy ~ lust, luck
# Damiana ~ lust, love, visions
# Dandelion ~ divination, wishes, calling spirits
# Deerstongue ~ lust
# Devils Bit ~ exorcism, love, protection, lust
# Devils Shoestring ~ protection, gambling, luck, power, employment
# Dill ~ protection, money, lust, luck
# Dittany of Crete ~ manifestations, astral projection
# Dock ~ healing, fertility, money
# Dodder ~ love, divination, knot magick
# Dogbane ~ love
# Dogwood ~ wishes, protection
# Dragons Blood ~ love, protection, exorcism, potency
# Dulse ~ lust, harmony
# Dutchman's Breeches ~ love
# Echinacea ~ strengthening Spells
# Edelweiss ~ invisibility, Bullet-Proofing
# Elder ~ exorcism, protection, healing, prosperity, sleep
# Elecampane ~ love, protection
# Elm ~ love
# Endive ~ lust, love
# Eucalyptus ~ healing, protection
# Euphorbia ~ purification, protection
# Eyebright ~ mental powers
# Fennel ~ protection, healing, purification
# Fenugreek ~ money
# Fern ~ rain making, protection, luck, riches, Eternal youth, health, exorcism
# Feverfew ~ protection
# Fig ~ divination, fertility, love
# Figwort ~ health, protection
# Flax ~ money, protection, beauty, healing
# Fleabane ~ exorcism, protection, chastity
# Foxglove ~ protection (poisonous)
# Frankincense ~ protection, exorcism, spirituality
# Galangal ~ protection, lust, health, money, hex breaking
# Gardenia ~ love, peace, healing, spirituality
# Garlic ~ protection, healing, exorcism, lust, anti-theft
# Gentian ~ love, power
# Geranium ~ fertility, health, love, protection
# Ginger ~ love, money, success, power
# Ginseng ~ love, wishes, healing, beauty, protection, lust
# Goats Rue ~ healing, health
# Goldenrod ~ money, divination
# Golden Seal ~ healing, money
# Gorse ~ protection, money
# Gotu Kola ~ meditation
# Gourd ~ protection
# Grape ~ fertility, Garden magick, mental powers, money
# Grass ~ protection
# Ground Ivy ~ divination
# Groundsel ~ health, healing
# Hawthorn ~ fertility, chastity, fishing magick, happiness
# Hazel ~ luck, fertility, anti-Lightning, protection, wishes
# Heather ~ protection, rain making, luck
# Heliotrope ~ exorcism, prophetic dreams, healing, Wealth, invisibility
# Hemp ~ healing, love, vision, meditation
# Henna ~ healing
# Hibiscus ~ lust, love, divination
# Hickory ~ legal matters
# High John the Conqueror ~ money, love, success, happiness
# Holly ~ protection, anti-Lightning, luck, dream magick
# Honesty ~ money
# Honeysuckle ~ money, protection
# Hops ~ healing, sleep
# Horehound ~ protection, mental powers, exorcism, healing
# Horse Chestnut ~ money, healing
# Horseradish ~ purification, exorcism
# Horsetail ~ snake charming, fertility
# Houndstongue ~ tying dogs tongues
# Houseleek ~ luck, protection, love
# Huckleberry ~ luck, protection, dream magick, hex breaking
# Hyacinth ~ love, protection, happiness
# Hydrangea ~ hex breaking
# Hyssop ~ purification, protection
# Indian Paint Brush ~ love
# Iris ~ purification, wisdom
# Irish Moss ~ money, luck, protection
# Ivy ~ protection, healing
# Jasmine ~ love, money, prophetic dreams
# Jobs Tears ~ healing, wishes, luck
# Juniper ~ protection, anti-theft, love, exorcism, health
# Kava-Kava ~ visions, protection, luck
# Knotweed ~ binding, health
# Lady’s Mantle ~ love
# Lady’s Slipper ~ protection
# Larch ~ protection, anti-theft
# Larkspur ~ health, protection
# Lavender ~ love, protection, sleep, chastity, longevity, purification, happiness, peace
# Leek ~ love, protection, exorcism
# Lemon ~ longevity, purification, love, friendship
# Lemongrass ~ repel snakes, lust
# Lemon Verbena ~ purification, love
# Lettuce ~ chastity, protection, love, divination, sleep
# Licorice ~ love, lust, fidelity
# Lilac ~ exorcism, protection
# Lily ~ protection, breaking love spells
# Lily of the Valley ~ mental powers, happiness
# Lime ~ healing, love, protection
# Linden ~ protection, immortality, luck, love, sleep
# Liquidamber ~ protection
# Liverwort ~ protection
# Loosestrife ~ peace, protection
# Lotus ~ protection, lock-opening
# Lovage ~ love
# Love Seed ~ love, friendship
# Lucky Hand ~ employment, luck, protection, money, travel
# Mace ~ mental powers
# Maguey ~ lust
# Magnolia ~ fidelity
# Mahogany Mountain ~ anti-Lightning
# Maidenhair ~ beauty, love
# Male Fern ~ luck, love
# Mallow ~ love, protection, exorcism
# Mandrake ~ protection, love, money, fertility, health
# Maple ~ love, longevity, money
# Marigold ~ protection, prophetic dreams, legal matters
# Marjoram ~ protection, love, happiness, health, money
# Master Wort ~ strength, courage, protection
# Mastic ~ manifestation, lust
# May Apple ~ money
# Meadow Rue ~ divination
# Meadowsweet ~ love, divination, peace, happiness
# Mesquite ~ healing
# Mimosa ~ protection, love, prophetic dreams, purification
# Mint ~ money, love, lust, healing, exorcism, travel, protection
# Mistletoe ~ protection, love, hunting, fertility, health, exorcism
# Moonwort ~ money, love
# Moss ~ luck, money
# Mugwort ~ strength, protection, prophetic dreams, healing, astral projection
# Mulberry ~ protection, strength
# Mullein ~ courage, protection, health, love ,divination, exorcism
# Mustard ~ fertility, protection, mental powers
# Myrrh ~ protection, exorcism, healing, spirituality
# Myrtle ~ love, fertility, youth, peace, money
# Nettle ~ exorcism, protection, healing, lust
# Norfolk Island Pine ~ protection, anti Hunger
# Nuts ~ fertility, prosperity, love, luck
# Oak ~ protection, health, money, healing, potency, fertility, luck
# Oats ~ money
# Olive ~ healing, peace, fertility, Potency, protection, lust
# Onion ~ protection, exorcism, healing, money, prophetic dreams, lust
# Orange ~ love, divination, luck, money
# Orchid ~ love
# Orris ~ love, protection, divination
# Palm, Date ~ fertility, Potency
# Pansy ~ love, rain magick, love, divination
# Papaya ~ love, protection
# Papyrus ~ protection
# Parosela ~ hunting
# Peach ~ love, exorcism, longevity, fertility, wishes
# Pear ~ lust, love
# Pecan ~ money, employment
# Pennyroyal ~ strength, protection, peace
# Peony ~ protection, exorcism
# Pepper ~ protection, exorcism
# Peppermint ~ purification, sleep, love, healing
# Pepper Tree ~ purification, healing, protection
# Periwinkle ~ love, lust, mental powers, money, protection
# Persimmon ~ changing sex, healing, luck
# Plot Weed ~ protection
# Pimento ~ love
# Pimpernel ~ protection, health
# Pine ~ healing, fertility, protection, exorcism, money
# Pineapple ~ luck, money, chastity
# Pistachio ~ breaking love spells
# Plantain ~ healing, protection, strength, Snake Repelling
# Plum ~ healing
# Plumeria ~ love
# Poke ~ courage, hex breaking
# Pomegranate ~ divination, luck, wishes, Wealth, fertility
# Poplar ~ money, flying
# Poppy ~ fertility, love, sleep, money, luck, invisibility
# Potato ~ image magick, healing
# Prickly Ash ~ love
# Primrose ~ protection, love
# Radish ~ protection, lust
# Ragweed ~ courage
# Ragwort ~ protection
# Raspberry ~ protection, love
# Rhododendron ~ peace, strength (poisonous plant)
# Rhubarb ~ protection, fidelity
# Rice ~ protection, rain, fertility, money
# Roots ~ protection, power, divination
# Rose ~ love, healing, love, divination, luck, protection
# Rosemary ~ protection, love, lust, mental powers, exorcism, purification, healing, sleep, youth
# Rowan ~ healing, protection, power, success
# Rue ~ healing, health, mental powers, exorcism, love
# Rye ~ love, fidelity
# Saffron ~ love, healing, happiness, wind raising, lust, strength
# Sage ~ immortality, longevity, wisdom, protection, wishes
# Sagebrush ~ purification, exorcism
# St. Johns Wort ~ health, power, protection, strength, love, divination, happiness
# Sandalwood ~ protection, healing, exorcism, spirituality
# Sarsaparilla ~ love, money
# Sassafras ~ health, money
# Savory/Summer ~ mental powers
# Skullcap ~ love, fidelity, peace
# Senna ~ love
# Sesame ~ money, lust
# Shallot ~ purification
# Skunk Cabbage ~ legal matters
# Slippery Elm ~ halts gossip
# Sloe ~ exorcism, protection
# Snakeroot ~ luck money
# Snakeroot/black ~ love, lust, money
# Snapdragon ~ protection
# Solomon’s Seal ~ protection, exorcism
# Sorrel Wood ~ healing, health
# Southern Wood ~ love, lust, protection
# Spanish Moss ~ protection
# Spearmint ~ healing, love, mental powers
# SpiderWort ~ love
# Spikenard ~ love
# Squill ~ money, protection, hex breaking
# Star Anise ~ luck
# Straw ~ luck, image magick
# Strawberry ~ love, luck
# Sugar Cane ~ love, lust
# Sunflower ~ fertility, wishes, health, wisdom
# Sweetgrass ~ calling spirits
# Sweetpea ~ friendship, chastity, courage, strength
# Tamarind ~ love
# Tamarisk ~ exorcism, protection
# Tansy ~ health, longevity
# Tea ~ riches, courage, strength
# Thistle ~ strength, protection, hex breaking, healing
# Thistle/holy ~ purification, hex breaking
# Thistle/milk ~ snake enraging
# Thyme ~ health, healing, sleep, love, purification, courage
# Ti ~ protection, healing
# Toadflax ~ protection, hex breaking
# Toadstool ~ rain making
# Tobacco ~ healing, purification
# Tulip ~ love, happiness, dreams
# Turmeric ~ purification
# Turnip ~ protection, ending relationships
# Valerian ~ love, sleep, purification, protection
# Vanilla ~ love, lust, mental powers
# Venus Flytrap ~ protection, love
# Vervain ~ love, protection, purification, peace, money, youth, chastity, sleep, healing
# Vetch/Giant ~ fidelity
# Vetivert ~ love, hex breaking, luck, money, anti-theft
# Violet ~ protection, luck, love, lust, wishes, peace, healing
# Wahoo ~ hex-breaking, courage, success
# Walnut ~ health, mental powers, infertility, wishes
# Wax Plant ~ protection
# Wheat ~ fertility, money
# Willow ~ love, divination, protection, healing
# Wintergreen ~ protection, healing, hex breaking
# Winters Bark ~ success
# Witch Grass ~ happiness, lust, love, exorcism
# Witch Hazel ~ protection, chastity
# Wolfs Bane ~ protection, invisibility
# Wood Rose ~ luck
# Woodruff ~ ictory, protection, money
# Wormwood ~ protection, love, calling spirits
# Yarrow ~ courage, love, exorcism
# Yerba Mate ~ fidelity, love, lust
# Yerba Santa ~ beauty, healing, protection
# Yucca ~ transmutation, protection, purification
# Zinnia ~ love, lust, strength

Herbal Cross Reference Listing Common, botanical, & folk names

by Mother Oak

Common Name ~ Botanical Name ~ Folk Names

ACACIA (Acacia senegal) Also called Gum Arabic Tree, Cape Gum, or Egyptian Thorn

AGRIMONY (Agrimonia eupatoria) Also called Church Steeples, Cocklebur, Garclive, Philanthropos, Sticklewort, Stickwort

ALLSPICE (Pimemta dioica or officinalis) Also known as Pimento, Jamaica Pepper

ALMOND (Prunus dulcis) Also called Sweet Almond

ALOE Aloe vera or Aloe ssp.) Also called Burn Plant, Medicine Plant

ANGELICA (Angelica archangelica) Also called Wild Parsnip, Herb of Angels, Archange, Masterwort, Angel Food

ANISE (Pimpinella anisum) Also called Aniseed, Anneys

APPLE (Malus spp.) Also called Fruit of the Gods, Fruit of the underworld, Silver Branch, The Silver Bough, Tree of Love

ASAFETIDA (Ferula asafoetida) Also called Assyfetida, Devils Dung, Food of the Gods

ASH TREE (Fraxinus americana or excelsior) Also called Nion, Common Ash, Weeping Ash

AVENS (Geum urbanum ) Also known as Colewort, Herb Bennet, City Avens, Wild Rye, Way Bennet, Goldy Star, Clove Root

BARBERRY (Berberis vulgaris ) Also known as Berbery, Pipperidge Bush, Berberis Dumetorum

BASIL (Oncimum basilicum) Also called Sweet Basil, Common Basil, Albahaca, American Dittenay, "Our Herb", St. Joseph's Wort, Sweet Basil, Witches Herb

BAYBERRY (Myrica cerifera) Also called Wax Myrtle, Myrica, Candle Berry, Arbre à suif, Myricæ cortex, Tallow Shrub, Wachsgagle

BAY LAUREL (Laurus nobilis) Also called Sweet Bay, Bay tree, Baie, Daphne, Grecian Laurel, Laurel, Laurier d'Apollon, Laurier Sauce, Lorbeer, Noble Laurel, Roman Laurel.

BEARBERRY (Arctostaphylow Urva-Ursi) Also called Arbutus Uva-Ursi, Uva Ursi

BEE BALM (Monarda didyma) Also called Bergamot, Scarlet Monarda, Oswego Tea

BENZOIN (Styrax benzoin) Also called Ben, Benjamen, Gum Benjamin, Gum Benzoin, Siam Benzoin, Siamese Benzoin, Sumatra Benzoin

BERGAMOT (Citrus bergamia) Also called Orange Mint, Orange Bergamot

BERGAMOT MINT (Mentha x piperita 'citrata')

BETONY (Stachys officonalis or Stachys betonica or Betonica officinalis) Also called Wood Betony, Bishopwort, Lousewort, Purple Betony

BIRCH (Betula alba) Also called Common Birch, White Birch, Beithe, Bereza, Berke, Beth, Bouleau, Lady of the Woods, Monoecia triandria, B. pubescens, B. verrucosa

BLACKBERRY (Rubus fructicosus); ((Rubus villosus)American Blackberry) Also called Bly, Bramble, Brombeere, Fingerberry, Bramble-Kite, Bumble-Kite, Cloudberry, Dewberry, Thimbleberry, Brummel, Brameberry, Scaldhead, Brambleberry, R. cuneifolius

BLACKTHORN (Prunus spinosa) Also called Sloe, Mother of the Wood, Wishing Thorn

BORAGE (Borago officinalis) Also called Bugloss, Burrage, Herb of Gladness

BRIAR ROSE (Rosa rubiginosa) Also called Wild Rose, Hip, Old Garden Rose

BROOM (Genista scoparius syn. Cytisus scoparius and Sarothamnus scoparious) Also known as Scotch Broom, Banal, Basam, Besom, Bisom, Bizzon, Breeam, Broom Tops, Brum, Genista Green Broom, Irish Tops, Link, Irish broom.

CAMPHOR (Cinnamomum camphora) Also called Laurel Camphor, Gum Camphor

CARAWAY (Carum carvi) Also called Caraway Seed

CARDAMOM (Elettario cardamomum) Also known as Amomum Cardamonum, Alpinia Cardamomum, Matonia cardamomu, Cardamomum minus, Amomum repens, Cardamomi Semina, Cardamom Seeds, Malabar, Cardamums, Ebil, Kakelah seghar, Capalaga, Gujattati elachi, Ilachi, Ailum

CARNATION (Dianthus caryophyllus) Also called Pink , Clove Pink, Gillies, Gillieflower, Jove's Flower, Nelka, Scaffold Flower, Sops-In-Wine, Gilly Flower.

CASSIA (Cinnamomum aromaticum var. cassia) Bastard Cinnamon, Chinese Cinnamon, Cassia lignea, Cassia Bark, Cassia aromaticum, Canton Cassia

CATNIP (Nepeta Catoria) Also called Cat, Catmint, Catnep, Catrup, Cat's Wort, Field Balm, Nepeta, Nip

CEDARWOOD (Cedrus libani or Cedrus spp. or Thuja occidentalis or T. spp) Also known as Cedar, Tree of Life, Arbor Vitae (Thuja occidentalis) or Yellow Cedar (T. occidentalis)

CELANDINE, GREATER (Chelidonium majus) Common Celandine, Garden Celandine

CELANDINE, LESSER (Ranunculus ficaria) Small Celandine, Figwort, Smallwort, Pilewort

CHAMOMILE (Chamaemelum nobile or Anthemis nobilis) Also called Roman chamomile, English chamomile, Perennial Chamomile, Wild Chamomile, Camomyle, Chamaimelon, Maythen (Saxon), Whig plant, Heermannchen (German), Manzanilla (Spanish), Ground Apple.

CHERRY (Prunus serotina) Also known as Black Cherry, Wild Cherry, Sweet Cherry (P. avium), Virginian Prune, Chokecherry (P. virginiana).

CINNAMON (Cinnamomum verum or zeylanicum) Also called Sweet Wood, Laurus cinnamomum

CINQUEFOIL (Pontentilla reptans) Also called Five Fingered Grass, Creeping cinquefoil, Crampweed, Five Fingered Blossom, Goosegrass, Goose Tansy, Moor Grass, Pentaphylon, Silver Cinquefoil, Silverweed, Sunkfield, Synkefoyle, Five Finger Grass, Five Leaved Grass.

CLARY SAGE Salvia sclarea) Clarry, Orvale, Toute-bonne, Clear Eye, See Bright, Eyebright

CLOVE (Syzgium aromaticum) Also known as Eugenia aromatica

CLUB MOSS (Lycopodium selago or clavatum) Also called Selago, Foxtail, Lycopod, Vegetable Sulpher, Wolf Claw or Stag's Horn Moss. Also known as Muscus terrestris repens

COLTSFOOT (Tussilago farfara) Also called Horsehoof, Horsefoot, Foal's Foot, Coughwort, Hallfoot, Ass's Foot, Foalswort, Fieldhove, Bullsfoot, Donnhove, Pas d'âne (French)

COMFREY (Symphytum officonale) Also called Slippery Root, Knitbone, Blackwort, Assear, Black Wort, Boneset, Bruisewort, Consolida, Consound, Gum Plant, Healing Herb, Knit Back, Yalluc (Saxon), Ass Ear, Miracle Herb, Wallwort

COPAL (Bursera odorata)

CORIANDER (Coriandrum sativum) Also called Chinese Parsley, Cilantro, Cilentro, Culantro

CUMIN (Cuminum cyminum) Also called Cumino aigro (Malta)

CYPRESS (Cupressus sempervirens) Also called Tree of Death

DANDELION (taraxacum officinale) Also called Blowball, Cankerwort, Lion's Tooth, Piss-a-Bed, Priest's Crown, Puffball, Swine Snout, White Endive, Wild Endive

DILL (Anethum graveolens) Also called Aneton, Dill Weed, Dilly, Garden Dill.

DRAGONS BLOOD (Draceana draco spp.) Also called Blood, Blume, Calumus draco, Draconis resina, Sanguis draconis, Dragon's Blood Palm.

ECHINACEA (Echinacea angustifolia) Also called Black Sampson, Coneflower, Purple Coneflower, Niggerhead, Rudbeckia, Brauneria pallida

ELDER (Sambucus canadensis or nigra) Also known as Ellhorn (Low Saxon), Hollunder (German), Elderberry, Lady Elder, Black Berried Elder, Old Gal, Old Lady, Pipe Tree, Rob Elder, Tree of Doom, Bour Tree (14th Century), Bore Tree, Elrum, Alhuren, Battree, Hylder, Hylantree, Eldrum (Anglo-Saxon), Sureau (French), Sweet Elder.

ELECAMPANE (Inula Helenium ) Also called Scabwort, Elf Dock, Wild Sunflower, Horesheal, Velvet Dock

ELM (Ulmus campestris ) Also called, Ulmi cortex, Broad-Leaved Elm, Ulmus suberosa, Common Elm

EUCALYPTUS (Eucalyptus spp.) Also called Blue Gum Tree, Stringy Bark Tree

LEMON EUCALYPTUS (E. citriodora) Also called Citron Scented Gum, Lemon Gum

EYEBRIGHT (Euphrasia officinalis) Also called Euphrosyne, Red Eyebright, Euphrasia

FENNEL (Foeniculum vulgare) Also called Fenkel, Sweet Fennel, Wild Fennel

FERNS
# Male Fern (Dryopteris filixmas) Also Called Male Shield Fern
# Lady Fern (Asplenium Felix-foemina ) Also known as Athrythium Filix-foemina
# Maidenhair Fern, True (Adiantum Capillus-veneris ) Also known as Capillaire commun, de Montpellier, Hair of Venus
# Maidenhair Fern, Common (Asplenium trichomanes )
# Shield Fern (Aspidium spinulosum) Also called Prickly-Toothed Shield Fern
# Spleenwort, Common (Asplenium ceterach) Also called Scaly Fern, Finger Fern, Miltwaste, Ceterach (Arabian)
# Spleenwort, Black (Asplenium Adiantum nigrum) Also called Black Maidenhair
# Wall Rue (Asplenium Ruta-muraria ) Also called White Maidenhair, Tenwort
# Hart's Tongue (Scolopendrium vulgare; Asplenium scolopendrium) Also called Hind's Tongue, Buttonhole, Horse Tongue, God's-hair, Lingua cervina
# Bracken (Pteris aquilina) Also called Brake Fern, Female Fern
# Polypody, Common (Polypodium vulgare) Polypody of the Oak, Wall Fern, Brake Root, Rock Brake, Rock of Polypody, Oak Fern (Old)
# Royal Fern (Osmunda regalis) Osmund the Waterman, Heart of Osmund, Water Fern, Bog Onion
# Adder's Tongue, English (Ophioglossum vulgatum) Christ's Spear
# Moonwort (Botrychium lunaria)

FEVERFEW (Tanacetum parthenum)also (Chrysanthemum parthenium) Also known as Featherfoil, Febrifuge Plant, Flirtwort, Featherfew, Pyrethrum Parthenium, Bachelor's Buttons

FIR, SILVER (Abies alba) Also known as Birth Tree.

FLAX (Linum usitatissimum) Also called Linseed.

FOXGLOVE (Digitalis purpurea) Also known as Fairy Gloves, Fairy Fingers, Dead Men's Bells, Cow-Flop, Digitalis, Dog;s Finger, Fairy Weed, Fairy Petticoats, Fairy Ghimbles, Floppy-Dock, Floptop Folk's Gloves, Fox Bells, The Great Herb, Mouth, Lusmore, Lus na mbau side (Irish Gaelic), Our Lady's Glove, Witches Bells, Witches Thimbles.

FRANKINCENSE (Boswellia carterii) Also called Incense, Olibans, Olibanum, Olibanus

FUMITORY (Fumaria officinalis ) Also called Earth Smoke, Beggary, Fumus, Vapor, Nidor, Fumus Terræ, Fumiterry, Scheiterigi, Taubenkropp, Kaphnos, Wax Dolls

GALANGAL (Alpinia officionalis or A. galanga) Also known as Low John the Conquerer, Chewing John, China Root, Colic Root, East India Catarrh Root, Galingal, Gargaut, India Root, Kaempferia Gaanga, Rhizoma galangae, Galanga, Kæmpferia Galange, Siamese Ginger.

GARDENIA (Gardenia jasmenoides)

GARLIC (Allium sativum) Also known by Ajo (Spanish), Poor Man's Treacle, Stinkweed

GERANIUM (Pelargonium spp.) Also known as Scented Geranium

GINGER (Zingiber officinale) Also called African Ginger

GINSENG Oriental(Panax ginseng)or North American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium) Also called Sang, Wonder of the World Root, Tartar Root, Five Fingers, Red Berry, Man's Health, Aralia quinquefolia

HAWTHORN (Cratageus spp.) Also known as May Tree, May Blossom, White Thorn, Bread and Cheese Tree, Gaxels, Hagthorn, Halves, Haw, Hazels, Huath, Ladies Meat, May, May Bush, Mayflower, Quick, Thorn, Tree of Chastity.

HAZEL (Corylus avellana) Also called European Filbert, Coll.

HEATHER (Calluna vulgaris, or spp. or Erica spp.) There are more than a thousand cultivars of heather. Also known as Heath, Scottish Heather, Common Heather, Ling.

HOLLY (Ilex aquifolium) The American variety is Ilex opaca Also called Aquifolius, Bat's Wings, Christ's Thorn, Holy Tree, Holm Chaste, Hulm, Hulver Bush, Tinne

HONEYSUCKLE (Lonicera japonica or caprifolium) Also known as Dutch Honeysuckle, Goat's Leaf, Woodbine

HOPS (Humulus lupulus) Also known as Beer Flavor, Beer Flower, (I)Flores de Cerveza.

HOREHOUND (Marrubium vulgare) Also called Bull's Blood, Eye of the Star, Haran, Hoarhound, Huran, Llwyd y cwn (Welsh), Marrubium, baruil, Seed of Horus, Soldier's Tea, White Horehound

HORSETAIL (Equisetum spp.) Also called Bottle Brush, Dutch Rushes, Paddock Pipes, Pewterwort, Shavegrass

HYSSOP Hyssopus officinalis Also called Hyssop Herb, Isopo, Ysopo, Yssop

IVY (Hedera helix) Also known as Common Ivy, Gort, Hedera

JASMINE (Jasminum officinale) Also called Jessamine, Yasmin, Moonlight on the Grove

JUNIPER (Juniperus communis) Also called Enegro, Gemeiner Wachholder (German), Geneva, Gin Berry, Ginepro, Gin Plant, Genévrier,

LADY'S MANTLE (Alchemilla vulgaris) Also called Lion's Foot, Bear's Foot, Nine Hooks, Leontopodium, Sellaria, Pied-de-Lion (French, Frauenmantle (German)

LAVENDER (Lavandula species) Also called Elf Leaf; Nard; Nardus; Spike, Spikenard,
# There are at least 28 species of Lavender. Some of the more common are: English Lavender (Lavendula angustifolia or vera or officinalis); French Lavender (L. dentata sp.); Spike Lavender (L. spica, or latifolia); White Lavender (L. angustifolia var. alba); Pink Lavender (L. angustifolia var. nana rosea); Wooly Lavender (L. lanata); Spanish or Italian Lavender (L. stoechas).

LEMON Citrus limon Citrus medica, Citrus Limoum, Citronnier, Neemoo Lemoo, Limoun, Limone

LEMON BALM Melissa officionalis Also called Melissa, Balm, Bee Balm, Sweet Balm, Sweet Melissa

LEMONGRASS (Cymbopogon citratus) Also called Melissa Grass, Sereh

LEMON VERBENA (Aloysia triphylla syn. Lippia citriodora) Also called Yerba Louisa, Cedron, Herb Louisa, Verveine citronelle or odorante, Lemon-scented Verbena, Aloysia Citriodora, Verbena triphylla, Lippia triphylla

LICORICE (Glycyrrhiza glabra) Also called Liquorice, Lacris (Welsh), Licourice, Lycorys (13th Century), Reglisse (French), Sweet Root, Liquiritia officinalis, Regolizia (Italian), Lacrisse (German)

LILAC (Syringia vulgaris) Also called Common Lilac

LIME (Citrus limata) Citrus acris, Limettæ Fructus

LINDEN (Tilia spp.) Also called Lime Tree, Linden Flowers, Linn Flowers, Common Lime, Flores Tiliæ, Tilleul

LOOSESTRIFE, PURPLE (Lythrum salicaria) Also called Blooming Sally, Lythrum, Partyke, Purple Willow Herb, Rainbow Weed, Sage Willow, Salicaire

LOTUS (Nelumbo nucifera or Nymphaea lotus) Also called Sacred Lotus

MACE (Myristica fragrans) Also called Arillus Myristicæ, Myristica officinalis, Myristica moschata, Macis, Muscadier

MARIGOLD (Calendula officinalis) Also known as Calendula, Holigold, Pot Marigold, Bride of the Sun, Drunkard, Goldes, Husbandman's Dial, Marybud, Marygold, Mary Gowles, Ruddes, Oculis chrisi, Ruddles, Spousa solis, Summer's Bride.

MARJORAM (Origanum majorana) Also known as Majorana hortensis, Knotted Marjoram, Sweet Marjoram, Wintersweet, Pot Marjoram, Joy of the Mountain, Knotted Marjorane, Marjorlaine, Mountain Mint, (O. onites).

MARSH MALLOW (Althaea officinalis ) Mallards, Mauls, Schloss Tea, Cheeses, Mortification Root, Guimauve (French)

MASTIC (Pistachia lentiscus) Also known as Gum Mastic, Masticke, Lentisk.

MEADOWSWEET (Filipendula ulnaria) Also known as Queen of the Meadow, Gravel Root, Meadowwort, Bride of the Meadow, Bridewort, Dollof, Meadwort, Gravel Root, Little Queen, Steeplebush, Trumpet Weed.

MINTS
# Spearmint (Mentha spicata) Also known as Mentha viridis, Garden Mint, Mackerel Mint, Our Lady's Mint, Green Mint, Spire Mint, Sage of Bethlehem, fish Mint, Menthe de Norte Dame, Erba Santa Maria, Grauen Munze, Lamb Mint
# Peppermint (Mentha piperata) Also called Brandy Mint
# Wild Mint (Mentha sativa) Also called Water or Marsh Mint, Whorled Mint, Hairy Mint. Considered to be a variation of Mentha aquatica.
# Corn Mint (Mentha arvensis)
# Wild Water Mint (Mentha aquatica) Water Mint, Wild Mint, Marsh Mint
# Round-Leaved Mint (Mentha rotundifolia) Also known as Egyptian Mint
# Horse Mint (Mentha sylvestris) Also known as English Horse Mint

MISTLETOE (Viscum album)-European Mistletoe (Phoradendron flavenscens) American Mistletoe Also known as Birdlime, All-Heal, Druid's Herb, Golden Bough, Holy Wood, Misseltoe, Thunderbesem, Witches Broom, Wood of the Cross, Devil's Fuge, Donnerbesen, Herbe de la Croi, Mystyldyne, Lignum Crucis, Korean mistletoe (Viscum coloratum)

MUGWORT (Artemisia vulgaris) Also known as Sailor's Tobacco, Witch Herb, Old Man, Artemis Herb, Hartemisia, Felon Herb, Muggons, Naughty Man, Old Uncle Henry, St. John's Plant, Cingulum Sancti Johannis.

MULLEIN (Verbascum thapsus) Also known as Hag's Taper, Candlewick Plant, Aaron's Rod, Velvet Plant, Shepherd's Club, Blanket Leaf, Flannel Pland, Graveyard Dust, Hedge taper, Jupiter's Staff, Lady's Foxglove, Olm Man's Fennel, Peter's Staff, Shepherd's Herb, Torches, Velvetback, Velvet Plant.

MYRRH (Comniphora myrrha) Also called Gum Myrrh Tree, Daran, Mirra Balsom Odendron, Commiphora Myrrha, Mirra, Morr-Didin, Didthin, Bowl

MYRTLE (Myrtus communis)

NUTMEG (Myristica fragrans) Nux Moschata, Myristica offinalis, Myristica, Myristica aromata(

OAK, COMMON (Quercus robur or spp.) Also known as Tanner's Bark, Common Oak, Duir, Jove's Nuts, English Oak
# White Oak (Q. alba)
# Black Oak (Q. tinctoria)
# Red Oak (Q. rubra)
# English Oak (Q. robur)

OAKMOSS (Pseudevernia prunastri)

ORANGE, SWEET (Citrus sinensis) Also called Citrus vulgaris, Citrus Bigaradia, Citrus Aurantium amara, Bigaradier, Gigarade Orange, Bitter Orange, Seville Orange, (Sweet) Portugal Orange, China Orange, Citrus dulcis, Love Fruit

ORRIS ROOT (Iris germanica var.florentina Also Called Florentine Iris, Queen Elizabeth Root

PARSLEY (Petroselinum sativum also crispum) Also called Devil's Oatmeal, Percely, Persil, Petersilie, Petroselinum, Roc Parsley

PATCHOULI (Pogostemon patchouli or heyeanus) Also called Pucha-pot or pucha-pat

PINE (Pinus spp.) White Pine (Pinus strobus, Pinus alba) Also called Oil of Turpentine Tree

ROSE (Rosa spp.)
# Provins Rose (Rosa gallica) Also referred to as Red Rose especially in The British Pharmacopoeia and the United States Pharmacopoeia
# Damask Rose (Rosa damascus)
# Musk Rose (Rosa muscatta)
# Cabbage Rose (Rosa centifolia) Also known as Hundred-leaved Rose
# Dog Rose (Rosa canina)
# Wild Rose (Rosa arvensis) Also called Field Rose
# Sweet Briar Rose (Rosa rubiginosa) Also known as Eglantine
# Burnet Rose (Rosa spinossissima) Also called Scotch Rose or Pimpernel Rose
# Downy Rose (Rosa villos )

ROSEMARY (Rosmarinus officinalis) Also called Compass Weed, Dew of the Sea, Elf Leaf, Guardrobe, Incensier, Libanotis (Grek), Polar Plant, Sea Dew

ROWAN (Sorbus aucuparia) Also known as Mountain Ash, Witchwood, Witchbane, Sorb Apple, Delight of the Eye, Quickbane, Ran Tree, Roden-Quicken-Royan, Ronetree, Thor's Helper, Whitty, Wicken-tree, Wiggin, Wiggy, Wiky, Wild Ash, Witchen.

RUE (Ruta graveolens) Also known as Herb of Grace, Garden Rue, Herbygrass, Hreow, Mother of the Herbs, Rewe, Ruta.

SAFFRON (Crocus sativus) Also known as Autumn Crocus, Crocus, Karcom, Krokos, Kunkuma (Sanskrit), Saffer (Arabic), Spanish Saffron

SAGE (Salvia officinalis) Also called Garden Sage, Red Sage, Sawge (Old English), Salvia salvatrix, Narrow-leaved White Sage, Broad-leaved White Sage

ST. JOHN'S WORT (Hypericum perforatum) Also called Amber, Fuga daemonum (Latin for Scare-devil), Goat Weed, Herba John, John's Wort, Kamath Weed, Sol Terrestis, Tipton Weed

SANDALWOOD (Santalum album) Also known as Sandal, Santal, White Sandalwood, White Saunders, Yellow Sandalwood, Sanders Wood

SPEARMINT (Mentha spicata) Also called Garden Mint, Our Lady's Mint, Sage of Bethlehem, Erba Santa Maria, Brown Mint, Lamb Mint, Green Mint, Yerba Buena, Green Spine, Mackeral Mint, Mismin (Irish Gaelic).

STAR ANISE (Illicium verum) Also called Chinese Anise

SUNFLOWER (Helianthus annuus) Also called Corona Solis, Marigold of Peru, Solo Indianus, Chrysanthemum Peruvianum

TARRAGON (Artemisia Dracunculus ) Also called Little Dragon, Herbe au Dragon (French)

TEA TREE (Melaleuca alternifolia) Also called Melaleuca

THYME (Thymus vulgaris) Also known as Common Thyme, Mother of Thyme, and Garden Thyme.

TOBACCO (Nicotiana tabacum) Also called Tabacca, Tabaci Folia

VALERIAN (Valeriana officinalis) Also known as Garden Heliotrope, Vandal Root, St. George's Herb, All-Heal, Amantilla, Bloody Butcher, Capon's Tail, Capon's Trailer, Cat's Valerian, English Valerian, Fragrant Valerian, Phu, Red Valerian, Sete Wale, Set Well

VERVAIN (Verbena officinalis) Also known as Enchanters Herb, Holy Herb, Verbena, Blue Vervain (V. hastata), Holy Wort, Brittanica , Enchanter's Plant, Herba Sacra, Herb of Enchantment, Herb of Grace, Herb of the Cross Herbe de Sacrée, Juno's Tears, Pigeon's Grass, Pigeonwood, Simpler's Joy, Van-Van, Verbena, Vervan

VETIVERT (Vetivera zizanioides) Also called Khus-khus or Vetiver.

VIOLET (Viola odorata) Also called Heartsease, Little Faces, Sweet Violet, Blue Violet and Viola.

WILLOW (Salix alba) Also known as White Willow, European Willow, Tree of Enchantment, Witches Aspirin, Osier, Pussy Willow, Saille, Salicyn Willow, Saugh Tree, Withe, Withy.

WITCH HAZEL (Hammamelis virginiana) Also called Spotted Alder, Winter Bloom, Snapping Hazelnut

WOAD (Ivatis tinctoria) Also called Wad (Anglo-Saxon, Guéde (French), Guado (Italian), Pastel (Spanish), Weat (Dutch)

WOOD ALOE (Aquilaria agallocha) Also called Lignum Aloes

WORMWOOD (Artemisia absinthium) Also known as Absinthe, Old Woman, Crown for a King, Green Ginger

YARROW (Achillea millefolium) Also known as Seven Year's Love, Milfoil, Achillea, Arrowroot, Bad Man's Plaything, Carpenter's Weed, Death Flower, Devil's Nettle, Devil's Plaything, Evil's Nettle, Eerie, Field Hops, Gwarwe, Hundred Leaved Gradd, Knight's Milfoil, Knyghten, Lady's Mantle, Militaris, Military Herb, Millefolium, Noble Yarrow, Nosebleed, Old Man's Mustard, Old Man's Pepper, Sanguinary, Snake's Grass, Soldier's Woundwort, Stanch Griss, Stanch Weed, Thousand Seal, WoundWort, Yarroway, Yerw.

YLANG-YLANG (Cananga odorata) Also called Flower of Flowers

Herbal Substitutions For magickal uses

by Mother Oak

THESE SUBSTITUTIONS ARE FOR MAGICKAL PURPOSES ONLY! Not to be used for medicinal, culinary, or any other purposes!

*Rosemary can be substituted for any other herb

*Rose can be substituted for any other flower

*Frankincense can be substituted for any gum resin

*Copal can be substituted for any gum resin

*Tobacco can be substituted for any poisonous herb

Herb needed - Herbal Substitution

# ACACIA-Gum Arabic
# ACACIA, GUM-Gum Arabic
# ACONITE-Tobacco
# ARABIC, GUM-Frankincense; Gum Mastic
# AMMONIAC GUM-Asafetida
# ASAFOETIDA-Tobacco; Valerian
# BALM OF GILEAD-Rose Buds; Gum Mastic
# BELLADONNA-Tobacco
# BENZOIN-Gum Arabic; Gum Mastic
# CAMPHOR OIL-Eucalyptus Oil; Lavender Oil
# CARNATION-Rose petals anointed with a few drops of Cinnamon Oil
# CASSIA-Cinnamon
# CASTOR BEANS-A few drops Castor Oil
# CEDAR-Sandalwood
# CINQUEFOIL-Clover; Trefoil
# CITRON-Equal parts Orange Peel and Lemon Peel
# CLOVE-Mace; Nutmeg
# CLOVER-Cinquefoil
# COPAL-Frankincense; Cedar
# COWBANE-Tobacco
# CYPRESS-Juniper; Pine Needles
# DEERS TONGUE-Tonka Bean; Woodruff; Vanilla
# DITTANY OF CRETE-Gum Mastic
# DRAGON'S BLOOD-Equal parts Frankincense and Red Sandalwood
# EUCALYPTUS OIL-Camphor Oil; Lavender Oil
# EUPHORBIUM-Tobacco
# FRANKINCENSE-Copal; Pine Resin
# GALANGAL-Ginger Root
# GRAINS OF PARADISE-Black Pepper
# GUM AMMONIAC-Asafetida
# GUM BDELLIUM-Copal; Pine Resin; Dragon's Blood
# HELLEBORE-Tobacco; Nettle
# HEMLOCK-Tobacco
# HEMP-Nutmeg; Damiana; Star Anise; Bay
# HENBANE-Tobacco
# HYSSOP-Lavender
# IVY-Cinquefoil
# JASMINE-Rose
# JUNIPER-Pine
# LAVENDER-Rose
# LEMON GRASS-Lemon Peel
# LEMON PEEL-Lemon Peel
# LEMON VERBENA-Lemon Grass; Lemon Peel
# MACE-Nutmeg
# MANDRAKE-Tobacco
# MASTIC, GUM-Gum Arabic; Frankincense
# MINT-Sage
# MISTLETOE-Mint; Sage
# MUGWORT-Wormwood
# NEROLI OIL-Orange Oil
# NIGHTSHADE-Tobacco
# NUTMEG-Mace; Cinnamon
# OAKMOSS-Patchouli
# ORANGE-Tangerine Peel
# ORANGE FLOWERS-Orange Peel
# PATCHOULI-Oakmoss
# PEPPERMINT-Spearmint
# PEPPERWORT-Rue; Grains of Paradise; Black Pepper
# PINE-Juniper
# PINE RESIN-Frankincense; Copal
# RED SANDALWOOD-Sandalwood mixed with a pinch of Dragon's Blood
# ROSE-Yarrow
# ROSE GERANIUM-Rose
# RUE-Rosemary mixed with a pinch of Black Pepper
# SAFFRON-Orange Peel
# SANDALWOOD-Cedar
# SARSPARILLA-Sassafras
# SASSAFRASS-Sarsaparilla
# SPEARMINT-Peppermint
# SULFER-Tobacco; Club Moss; Asafetida
# THYME-Rosemary
# TOBACCO-Bay
# TONKA BEAN-Deerstongue; Woodruff; Vanilla Bean
# TREFOIL-Cinquefoil
# VALERIAN-Asafetida
# VANILLA-Woodruff; Deerstongue; Tonka Bean
# VETIVERT-Calamus
# WOLFSBANE-Tobacco
# WOOD ALOE-Sandalwood sprinkled with Ambergris Oil
# WOODRUFF-Deerstongue; Vanilla
# WORMWOOD-Mugwort
# YARROW-Rose
# YEW-Tobacco

Harvesting basics Pick em, don't strip em

by Mother Oak

No matter how you intend to use your herbs after harvesting a few basic rules still apply.
# Tree Leaves should be gathered before Midsummer. After that, the percentage of natural insecticides in the leaves are too high.
# Leaves are at their most fragrant, and richest in volatile oils, before any flowers have opened. The exceptions to this are: borage, coltsfoot, cowsslip, fenugreek, lungwort and sweet violet; they should be gathered after flowering. Rosemary can be gathered at any stage. Gather early on a dry day, after the dew has dried but before the sun is too strong. Dry in a shady, cool, and airy place away from any strong heat sources. Avoid steamy places such as kitchens or bathrooms. Once dry, crumble the leaves and discard large pieces of stem, store them in a lidded glass or ceramic jar away from the light.
# Flowers are gathered on a dry day when the flowers first begin to open. They should always be dried in the shade. Carefully cut each flower head off the stalk, remove any insects or dirt, and place on a paper lined tray. Leave to dry in a warm place and turn regularly Small flowers such as lavender, are dried in the same way as seeds - by hanging them upside down and collecting the flowers in a paper bag. Once dried, store in a lidded glass or ceramic jar. Dark colored jars are best because they keep out the light. Calendula petals should be separated from the center part once they are dry.
# Roots are generally gathered in the fall after the plant has begun to die back. The exception to this is dandelion roots, they should be gathered in the early spring. Wash them thoroughly to remove any dirt. Chop large roots into smaller pieces to speed up the drying process. Spread the root pieces on a paper lined tray. Preheat the oven and turn it off. Place the trays inside with the door ajar for 3-6 hours (depending on how large the pieces are). Transfer the trays to a warm room away from the sun until completely dry. Store in airtight containers away from the light. Check periodically as dried roots have a tendency to reabsorb moisture from the air, discard any pieces that become soft.
# Seeds should be gathered as they ripen, usually in the fall. Seed heads should be hung to dry inside a paper bag. Don't use plastic as any condensation that gathers could lead to mildew and cause the seeds to rot. Once dry separate the seeds from their cases and store in the same manner as leaves and flowers.
# Berries are harvested when they are just ripe, usually in the early fall, before they have become too soft to dry effectively. Spread on paper lined trays, discard any that show signs of mold. Preheat your oven and then turn it off. Place the trays of berries inside with the door ajar for 3-4 hours. Transfer the trays to a warm, airy spot, away from the sun until completely dry. Turn regularly to ensure even drying.
# Tree barks generally contain the desired medicinal properties in the soft inner layer (cambium) between the sapwood and the dead outer bark, or the bark of the root. Bark should be harvested in the autumn when the sap is falling. This will avoid damaging the tree too much. Never remove all the bark or even a strip of bark completely surrounding the tree. Dust or wipe bark to remove moss or insects. Break into small pieces (about 1-2 inches). Spread the bark on paper lined trays and leave to dry in a warm, airy room away from the sun.

Tools of The Craft The basics and then some

by Mother Oak

The Altar
The altar or working space is the first thing you'll need in any magickal working. Ideally, you should have a special room for this, but few of us live in ideal situations. Your altar can be as simple as a coffee table or as elaborate as you wish. The ritual altar serves a dual purpose; it's a place to keep your ritual tools and materials; and it serves as a visual focus for your magickal work. Some traditions hold that the altar should always face the East, or the South, or in the center, etc., etc... Put your altar where it feels right for you. More important, put it somewhere where you will be able to see it easily, where you'll be able to reach the things you need to reach, and where you won't trip over it.

If your practice includes deity worship, then the right side of the altar is usually dedicated to the God. A red, yellow or gold candle, or an appropriate figure, is usually place there, as are the censor, wand, athame, bolline and a bowl of salt. The left half of the altar is usually dedicated to the goddess. Tools sacred to Her are placed there: the cup, the pentacle, bell, crystal, cauldron and the bowl of water. An image of the Goddess may also stand there, or a green, silver or white candle can be substituted. The besom or broom may be laid against the left side of the altar. The cauldron is also sometimes placed on the floor to the left of the altar if there isn't room on top.


The Pentacle
The pentacle is a five-pointed star surrounded by a circle. The five points represent earth, air, fire, water, and the spirit. The circle represents the protection of these five. It can be worn around the neck for protection. It doesn't need to be a fancy solid gold work of art. You can scratch a pentacle into a clay disk or wooden tile if you want. It's all a very personal matter of preference so just wing it and make or acquire one that feels right to you.


The Cauldron
The cauldron is traditionally a black cast-iron pot, but can be made of any material. It represents the womb of the Mother Goddess, and is used to brew potions, burn incense, and hold flowers, herbs etc. The cauldron can also be used as a tool for divining. A wonderful use for your worn out or damaged cauldrons is using them as a planter for your herbs. The energies collected from years of use are a wonderful boost to the already potent plants and will infuse them with your essence for a more personal connection.


The Book of Shadows
The book of shadows is as important to Witches as the Bible is to Christians. In it you write spells, thoughts, recordings of magickal rites, recipes for potions, dreams, and anything else you see as being important to your Craft. The book can be leather bound with a pentacle on the front, a $2.00 spiral notebook purchased from an office supply store, or a hard cover blank journal with rainbows and fluffy kittens. Again, it's all personal choice. Make one from sewn bundles of hand made natural papers in a soft thong tied flap-style leather cover or natural cotton or hemp woven textile if you prefer not to use leather goods. No-one except you (if you are solitary) should be allowed to access and read it, because it is private, like a personal diary. Covens usually have a Book of Shadows which is shared by the entire coven, and can be written in by the whole coven. Because it is your personal book, it should be hand written; however many Witches nowadays prefer to have a Disk of Shadows, for easier and faster use.


The Athame
The Athame is a ritual dagger with a black handle and a double-edged blade which is traditionally engraved with magickal symbols. It represents the element of air. It is used to draw and cast circles, and exorcise evil and negative forces.


The Bolline
This is usually a white handled knife traditionally used for physical cutting since you don't want to use your Athame for that. It is simply a practial, working as opposed to a purely ritualistic magick knife. It is used to cut wands or sacred herbs, inscribe symbols onto candles or on wood, clay or, wax, and in cutting cords for use in magick. Some Witches dictate that the white-handled knife be used only within the magick circle. This would, of course, limit its usefulness. Do what feels right to you.


The Chalice
The chalice is placed on the altar during rituals and Sabbats, and usually holds the sacred wine. It is traditionally made of silver, and carved with magickal symbols. Many modern Witches use brass or crystal chalices.


The Wand
The magick wand is a slender wooden rod made from the branch of a tree. It is a symbol of strength, will, and the magickal power of the Witch who owns it. The wand can be used to draw and cast circles, draw magickal symbols on the ground, direct energy, and stir cauldron brews. Many different trees can be used to carve the wand from, as each tree has a different meaning. Examples: For a healing wand carve the wand from an ash tree, and a wand to be used in lunar magick could be carved from willow and rowan trees.


The Sword
The sword is an optional Witchcraft tool. The use of the sword comes mostly from British ceremonial magick and isn’t part of most Witchcraft traditions. There is honest disagreement among Witches as to which element the sword corresponds with. Some Witches believe that the sword corresponds to the element fire. Some Witches believe the sword corresponds with the element air. Experiment and see which works best for you personally, but honor the right for other Witches to honestly have a different choice. The sword is considered to be a phallic tool and therefore of masculine element and male energy. A sword can be used for most of the same purposes as an athame, but is more formal. Witches that use a sword reserve the use of the sword for highly formal occassions. The sword is not an ordinary, everyday Witchcraft tool.


The Bell
Some Witches use a bell in their rituals, though certainly not all. Sound is vibration and vibrations are important, not only in everyday life but, especially, magick. To help achieve the right vibrations, the right "mood" or "frequency", it helps to ring a bell. It can actually be just as effective-and thereby as important-as the burning of incense, which also affects vibrations. Don't overdo the bell ringing. A very occasional single-, double-, or triple-ring, scattered throughout the ritual, can be far more effective than a constant jangling. The bell you use should be chosen carefully. Don't just take any bell - each has its own particular timbre. Find one which seems "right" to you, one which soothes and mellows rather than one which is harsh and strident. If possible, remove the handle and replace it with a leather loop. In this way you can carry the bell strung from you belt (if you prefer that is!). The bell is a feminine symbol and so is often used to invoke the Goddess in ritual. It is also rung to ward off evil spells and spirits, to halt storms, or to evoke good energies. Placed in cupboards or hung on the door, it guards the home.


The Besom/Broom
The Besom is used to cleanse the ritual area. There are those who insist that a besom must be made of broom, but this isn't necessarily true. In fact, it is said that fairies hate the scent of broom. Straw or grass brooms are fine for indoors, while outdoors, any leafy twig found on the ground will work well. Many stores and craft shops carry the old-fashioned "witch" broom made of straw or grass that is perfectly acceptable as long as it feels right to you. To cleanse your ritual area, start in the center and moving deosil (clockwise) sweep the circle from the center to the outer edges, all the while envisioning and chanting that negativity is being swept out and the circle is being cleaned. Since this is a ritual tool, it should not be used for standard cleaning and sweeping.


Candles
Candles are associated with Fire and Air, and are used for everything from lighting the altar to specifics in spells. The type of wax or scent does not matter, Color is what is important here. For basic magickal working the basic candle colors needed are white, black, green, red, yellow, blue, gold, and silver. When your candles get old or if you happen to purchase some from a thrift store that have been used, you can melt them down and make new candles. This is a good way to not only save money (these things aren't cheap, face it!), but you can make custom spell candles infused with essential oils or mix herbs and stones directly into the candle for more potency. I like to recycle my candles and bits of dripped wax cleaned off the altar and use the leftovers for sealing containers and seed packets. The uses are endless!


Herbs & Oils
Herbs are often burned for incense during a spell or ritual. Charcoal blocks are available for this purpose in gift and candle shops as well as new age and occult supply stores. Essential oils are used for anointing candles, tools, the altar and the body in rituals and spell working. They may be used as tokens of esteem and respect for the deities and energies of the Craft. As plants of various kinds have customarily been offered to the Lady, herbal offerings can be especially meaningful for their particular significance and properties. Since all herbs and oils have their own particular energies they can be a valuable, if not essential, addition to your magickal matierials. Herbs are always associated with the element Earth.


Robes
A robe that is only saved for spellworking can be a fundamental part of your magickal paraphernalia, (if your tradition doesn't call for you being skyclad that is!). It can be plain, decorated, and of any color that appeals to you as long as it makes you feel "magickal". It is nice to have more than one robe, each in a different color. The colors can be matched to the candle colors required for a particular spellworking. If you don't like the idea of a robe, wear whatever feels comfortable to you. The idea is to feel at ease not to be "fashionable".


Stones & Crystals
Colorful stones of various shapes and sizes are used in some spellworks. Whether you purchase them or find them yourself, be certain that their vibrations feel comfortable to you. Crystals and other stones are good conductors of magickal energy in their natural state and need not be polished to be of use. All stones and crystals are of the Element Earth and play an important part in spellworkings. Don't feel like you must have a gigantic museum quality stone to accomplish what you want. You can find an abundance of reference books and web sites out there that will help you identify stones you can find locally. You'd be suprised what your very own back yard may hold!


Offerings & Tokens
I was very suprised to find that not many use these very important little items! It is said that when you take a plant or material from nature that you should offer a little something in return along with your thanks for their contribution to your workings. Offerings and tokens are the perfect way to ensure that your thanks is given appropriately. These can be seeds, coins, wooden tiles, stones, beads, or anything you feel would be accepted. I use small wooden disks decorated with symbols, large seeds with a symbol drawn on them with non toxic ink or food coloring, and stones with symbols etched on them. When I take a plant clipping, I will generally plant the seed (far enough away from the offering plant that it doesn't crowd it out later) or other offering or token and give my thanks for the plants sacrifice. As a result I now have a lovely "wild garden" with a variety of plants that are useful to my needs!

Italian Folk Magic vs Italian Witchcraft

By Raven Grimassi

The contemporary folk magic systems in Italy reflect strong elements of Catholicism, as they have since the late Middle Ages. In America, and elsewhere, we are seeing the rise of what is commonly called Christian witchcraft. The latter is a blending of contemporary Wiccan and witchcraft elements, which are formed around a Christian core. This process is not unlike the evolution of modern folk traditions in Italy.

Modern Italian witchcraft traditions, by contrast to contemporary Italian folk traditions, typically do not contain Christian elements. Instead they focus upon Pagan elements of magic and religion. However a few traditions have adapted certain Catholic aspects of saint veneration, which constitute a Christian veneer masking earlier Pagan deities.

Some contemporary folk traditions erroneously view themselves as practitioners of a form of Italian witchcraft, but are instead a branch of common folk magic and healing traditions that are rooted in Italian Catholic culture. Ironically these folk practitioners reject the authenticity of Italian witchcraft traditions that do not reflect their beliefs and practices. Sadly, being highly active in their judgment and criticism of others, they bring little else than disharmony to the Pagan & Craft community. One example can be found on the website Stregoneria Italiana, a group with members who actively contrive to foster ill feelings toward author Raven Grimassi with frequent erroneous and negative posts in various forums and chat rooms throughout the Internet.

Today we face many problems associated with the misconceptions that do exist regarding Italian folk magic systems and Italian witchcraft. Although they share certain basic elements, the two systems reflect a clear distinction. This is reflected in the 19th century field studies of Charles Leland who comments:

“The witches of Italy form a class who are the repositories of all the folklore; what is not at all generally known, they also keep as strict secrets an immense number of legends of their own, which have nothing in common with the nursery or popular tales, such as are commonly collected and published …the more occult and singular of their secrets are naturally not of a nature to be published”.

Nineteenth century folklorist Lady de Vere describes such a structured witch cult in an article she wrote in 1894: "...the community of Italian witches is regulated by laws, traditions, and customs of the most secret kind, possessing special recipes for sorcery" (La Rivista of Rome, June 1894).

As noted, Italian folk magic traditions possess various aspects of Christian beliefs and practices. These are often rooted in the venerations of saints or the use of sacred or holy objects such as holy water, the communion wafer, or the rosary. In addition various elements of folk magic are liked to important dates in Christianity such as Christmas Eve and festivals celebrating a variety of saints. Many of these displaced earlier Pagan festivals such as the summer solstice, which is now celebrated as St. John’s Day.

Italian witchcraft possesses active elements of pre-Christian religion, and incorporates the aid of spirits, faeries, astronomical forces, and a variety of Pagan deities. Ancient Roman writers depict witches associated with the goddess Hecate, Diana, and Proserpina. Ancient writers in Europe also associate witches in Italy with the goddess Venus, and the god Priapus. None of these elements are found in traditional Italian folk magic traditions, but they do reside in older forms of Italian witchcraft. Most modern scholars have ignored or dismissed the earlier writings that mention pre-Christian elements within Italian witchcraft, and do not consider them as evidence of an actual witches’ sect.

Contemporary scholars investigating folk magic and Italian witchcraft have conducted field studies that involve interviews with folk practitioners in Italy. Almost one hundred percent of these individuals are Catholic or some other denomination of the Christian faith. By contrast the field studies conducted in 19th century Italy, by such folklorists as J.B. Andrews, Lady de Vere, Roma Lister, and Charles Leland involved individuals who claimed to be witches. Naturally, in accord, the material and conclusions gathered by contemporary scholars and 19th century folklorists differ greatly. It is noteworthy that five folklorists in Italy during the 19th century independently discovered a commonality within witchcraft traditions in different regions of Italy (none of which conform to common folk magic or folk traditions then or now).

Most modern scholars focus on the folk healer in Italy, and tend to see the arts and customs of this figure as definitive of the cultural norms. While this view may be true of contemporary traditions in modern culture, it fails to appreciate the significance of the existing Pagan elements preceding the modern folk traditions that contain them. The majority of scholars today view pre-Christian elements as insertions into a Christian framework instead of seeing them as evidence of the survival of ancient pre-Christian religion. One example appears in the feast day of San Domenico in Cocullo (Abruzzo region) whose statue is covered with living snakes and carried in a procession. This site was earlier the home of the Marsi, a pre-Christian Pagan tribe that worshipped the goddess Angizia, a type of snake deity.

The customs associated with the feast of San Domenico strongly suggests that the Pagan elements pre-existed in a readily adoptable form that fit the Christian veneer. However, most scholars appear to believe that such Pagan elements are not evidence of pre-existing sects and their beliefs and practices that were later incorporated into saint veneration in the Christian era. As previously noted, most modern scholars seem to reject the idea that modern folk traditions are actually Christian offshoots of earlier Pagan beliefs and practices.

When exploring for the correct chronology regarding Pagan and Christian elements, it is noteworthy that the Church and its agents seem to have intentionally displaced things as they Christianized. One example is the festival day of the goddess Diana on August 13th, which was displaced with the Ascension of Mary on August 15th. Another example is the birth of Jesus placed near the Winter Solstice, and his resurrection in the spring. The death of Jesus on a tree (wooden cross) also resembles pagan themes in Europe. When we add to this the Pagan elements contained within saint veneration, the evidence seems weighted against the Christian markers in terms of origins, chronology, and who took what from whom.

David Gentilcore, a historian of early modern Italy, held that while it was impossible to draw absolute distinctions between schooled medical professionals, ecclesiastical healers, and illiterate "wise-women," that medical knowledge flowed between these three groups. This is one example of how common elements within a group (or tradition) do not necessarily demonstrate that the systems or organizations are the same. The differences between Italian folk magic/folk customs and Italian witchcraft appear to reveal the truth of such a view. Gentilcore also notes that while some cures were known and accessible to all members of society, others were restricted to community wisewomen:

"Some cures were immediately accessible, being the common lore of all members of society; others were restricted to community wise women (referred to in the Otrantine trial records as magare) and midwives. As we shall see, they belong to the system of the sacred because they attempted to establish relationships with the sacred and influence it, although they did so outside ecclesiastical structures" - From Bishop to Witch, page 129 (Gentilcore).

Gentilcore notes that historians and folklorists lack a full comprehension of folk methods. This has led to an unintentional misrepresentation of the traditions by the academic community. Gentilcore cites the concealment involved in secret societies as a factor in the misunderstanding of academic researchers:

"..to view these 'exorcising techniques' simply as lay versions or applications of ecclesiastical rituals would be to rob them of their richness and miss their other sources of inspiration. The folklorist and historian is not entirely to blame, since the invocations and prayers were often revealed by the healer without the accompanying prescription or magico-medical practices. This is usually the choice of the informant (or, in the case of the episcopal and inquisitional trials, the accused) for whom the secret cannot be revealed to him without both the ritual and the healer losing their efficacy. Because of the importance of secrecy witnesses could not often be sure what the healer said or did" - page 134

Although most modern scholars dismiss or reject the pre-Christian elements of contemporary Italian folk traditions, there are some who do recognize the importance of them in understanding folk systems. Several scholars recognize that Christian themes (particularly related to saints) and biblical associations (historiola) have been constructed around pre-existing Pagan beliefs and practices. Gentilcore notes:

"The brief magical formula that followed the historiola was usually pronouned sotto voce, its very secrecy giving it limitless power. By their nature, such words had to escape the comprehension of the uninitiated in order to be effective. Giuseppe Cocchiara identifies this part of the invocation as a surviving pre-Christian magical formula on to which has been tacked the Christian historiola. Yet often the magical formula itself, which depends on the exorcisng power of words, took on a Christian form..."

This modification and arrogation of the foundational Pagan elements of folk traditions has blinded most scholars to the lore, beliefs, and practices of the earlier pre-existing authentic forms of Italian witchcraft. By choosing to view the modified Christian folk traditions as the original and normal model, modern scholars fail to search in earnest for its Pagan roots (or to recognize it once they encounter it).

Few if any modern scholars have personally interviewed contemporary Italian witches. One of the small numbers of modern scholars to explore the topic of Italian witchcraft today is anthropologist Sabina Magliocco who authored an article titled Spells, Saints, and Streghe (published in Pomegranate, issue #13, August 2000).

In her article, Magliocco states that most of her knowledge of Italian folk magic comes from ethnographic research and fieldwork in Sardinia, where she spent a cumulative 18 months living in a highland community of sheep and goat pastoralists between 1986 and 1990. She makes it clear that her knowledge is in the area of Italian folk magic. There is no claim by her to possess anything resembling an intimate knowledge of Italian witchcraft (as practiced in Italy or elsewhere). It seems likely that shepherds in Sardinia did possess some knowledge of folk magic as many Italian do. However, it seems reasonably certain that these commoners knew little if anything of authentic forms of witchcraft. Therefore they cannot seriously be viewed as expert witnesses on Italian witchcraft.

Magliocco comments on the influence of Charles G. Leland's Aradia, or the Gospel of Witches, and goes on to say that Leland's material does not bear a strong resemblance to Italian folk magical practice as documented in the ethnographic record of the last 100 years. She also claims this is true of modern Italian witchcraft traditions. Naturally there is little reason why they should, because they are two different systems. As we have already seen, the community of Italian witches possesses secret customs and traditions (again noted by 19th century folklorist Roma Lister).

As previously Charles Leland mentions the following from his field studies among self proclaimed witches (as opposed to common people in a shepherd community, as was the case with Magliocco’s field studies):

“The witches of Italy form a class who are the repositories of all the folklore; what is not at all generally known, they also keep as strict secrets an immense number of legends of their own, which have nothing in common with the nursery or popular tales, such as are commonly collected and published ... the more occult and singular of their secrets are naturally not of a nature to be published ....”

In this light Magliocco’s views are difficult to reconcile with those of professional Folklorists in the 19th century who performed field studies among people who defined themselves as witches. She comments that Italian-American Witchcraft or Stregheria traditions differ from Italian folk magical practice in several important ways. She first states that Italian folk magic is not an organized or unified religion, but a varied set of beliefs and practices. This is true, which is one of the primary reasons it differs from Italian witchcraft.

Magliocco writes that while folk magic has deep historical roots, it is not a survival of an ancient religion, but an integral part of a rural peasant economy and way of life, highly syncretized with folk Catholicism. This is another reason why it differs from Italian witchcraft. She continues with the view that knowledge of magical practices was at one time diffused throughout the rural population, rather than limited to a secret group of magical practitioners. Indeed such things were diffused, but they were diffused from the secret societies into the common population. However, the material was never understood by the non-initiated, and was quickly Christianized to conform with the standards of contemporary society. Within the “rural population” it quickly transformed into a diluted and altered form that today is known as folk magic.

Magliocco concedes that the context of Italian folk magical practice differs considerably from that of contemporary Italian-American revival witchcraft, so that materials are not always easily transferable from one system to another. This is precisely one of the main reasons why they need to be understood as different systems. Their differences do not render either as unauthentic but speak to different systems that are not dependent upon one another.

In her article, Magliocco states that all traditions are perpetually in flux as their bearers constantly re-interpret and re-invent them with each individual performance. She further comments that revival and revitalization are part of the process of tradition, even when the result is different from the original practice itself. Ironically her argument is therefore as true of folk magic as it would be of Italian witchcraft. Consequently, since folk traditions transform within the model that Magliocco supports, they cannot be the measure of “authenticity” when comparing them against Italian witchcraft or other systems. This would be particularly true of anything that pre-dated the folk tradition, since the tradition itself has transformed into something different from its roots.

Magliocco writes that one of the problems with the idea of a unified organization of Italian witches is that the Italian peninsula could not be said to have anything resembling an integrated culture between the end of the Roman Empire (453ce) and the beginning of the 20th century, making the existence of a secret, organized Italian witch cult nearly impossible. However, the reality is that five folklorists in Italy (during the 19th century) independently discovered a commonality within witchcraft traditions in different regions of Italy. Magliocco also comments that the development of a unified Italian system of ritual magic, diffused through oral tradition on a popular level, is unlikely before the 20th century. She goes on to add that any generalizations about an Italian folk culture need to be treated with great caution. The latter statement is very true, which is yet another reason why folk traditions and folk magic systems cannot be the universal measurements of authenticity in an investigation and comparison of Italian witchcraft.

To understand Italian folklore and folk magic (as opposed to authentic forms of witchcraft) it is helpful to look at its literary history. According to folklorist Italo Calvino (Italian Folktales) it is generally accepted that Italian tales were recorded from the oral tradition by the early Middle Ages. Gianfrancesco Straparola and Giambattista Basile compiled the earliest works. Straparola wrote tales of wizardry and enchantment. Basile wrote down old tales of enchantment and superstition spoken by Italian peasants in Venice, Crete, and along the Mediterranean coast (circa 1637). Laura Gonzenbach, a Swiss-German born in Sicily, gathered oral tales from the peasants of Sicily, and published her work in 1870.

The writings of Straparola and Basile provide us with a snapshot of common Italian lore, as it existed it Italy around the 15th century. Because we possess no earlier works it is almost impossible to know what alterations were made over the centuries, and how similar the tales are in relationship to the roots of the beliefs and practices depicted in the written accounts. A further problem arises when we ask whether beliefs about witches in folk tales represent what people actually believed, or whether they reflect the fantastic.

In the book Out of the Woods: The Origins of the Literary Fairy Tale in Italy and France, edited by Nancy Canepa (published by Wayne State University Press, 1997) the author points to manipulations and transformations of the earlier folklore tales by certain authors of the 18th century. This resulted in a change of not only the core and flavor of the original folktales, but also altered the social history through which they originally arose. Canepa notes that this dominated fairy-tale scholarship well into the 1970s.

Scholar Jack Zipes, in his book The Trials and Tribulations of Little Red Hiding Hood (Routledge, 1993) states that folktales “were told by priests in the vernacular as part of their sermons to reach out to the peasantry”. Canepa points out that “The authors – and audiences – of the first French tales, as of the earlier Italian tales, were the elite frequenters of courts and salons, and these authors lost no opportunity to use the tales to air their views on prevailing social and political conditions…” This leaves us with the problem of how contrived were the retold tales, and what personal gain existed in each occasion of the telling? In such a light, popular lore again becomes unreliable as a standard by which to view the authenticity of folklore as a reliable means of discerning cultural integrity. Instead it can be seen as exposing political stratagem.

Canepa notes the problem with viewing popular lore as reflective of the culture as a whole: “Moreover, in the case of the fairly tale (v. other forms of ‘fantastic’ literature), the situation of a given work in a precise sociocultural context is further obfuscated by the tendency to regard fairy tales, even when they are literary creations of individual authors, along the same lines as oral folkltales: that is, as collective, anonymous, products of a tale-telling community that may span vast chronological and geographic boundaries”.

The problem for scholars is that the written tales (which as we’ve seen have been manipulated and transformed over the centuries) comprise the bulk of the research data used by the academic community. Although some modern scholars still seek out oral accounts, the written tales that people have been exposed to from birth have no doubt contaminated the oral tales that can still be encountered in contemporary times among the common people. The problem is further confounded by the fact that modern scholars reject the field studies of 19th century folklorists who recorded the oral accounts of lore and witchcraft drawn from people professing to be witches. The favoring of exoteric material over esoteric material by the academic community has resulted in a misunderstanding of Italian witchcraft (both old and new) that may never be resolved.

Mediterranean / Aegean Parallels in Modern Wicca

By Raven Grimassi

The Four Ritual Tools

In modern Witchcraft (and Wicca) we often find the inclusion of what is commonly referred to as the "four tools of Western occultism." These are the pentacle, wand, dagger, and chalice. It is interesting to note that in the ancient cult of Mithras we find the use of ritual tools known as the wand of command, the libation cup, the crescent-shaped blade, and the platter. In the book The Cults of the Roman Empire, by Robert Turcan, the author also notes the presence of a ritual sword and a scourge known as the sun's whip. These Aegean/Mediterranean tools bear a striking resemblance to those that later appear in Gardnerian Wicca. One possible explanation for this theme is that the Cult of Mithras was spread to the British Isles by the Roman legions, which occupied Britain for several centuries.

It is noteworthy to find the appearance of the blade, cup, pentacle, and wand displayed together in a magical/ritual context in the symbolism of the early Italian Renaissance period. This image of the traditional tools of Western Occultism is captured in the 15th century Visconti Cary-Yale tarot deck, the oldest known extant deck. The Visconti Magician card depicts a man standing before a table. In his left hand he holds a wand. On the table itself is set a large chalice, a sword, and a pentacle. Stuart Kaplan, an acknowledged expert on the Tarot, says that all Tarot symbolism as we know it today evolved from the Italian Tarot.

Source: The Encyclopedia of the Tarot, U.S. Games Inc., Stamford 1978.
The Book of Shadows

Italian Witches were hand copying from the Key of Solomon in the 17th century, and mixing it with spells and rituals in their private hand written books.*

Francesco Guazzo wrote in his 17th century Italian Witch Hunter's Guide that witches use a black book from which they read during their religious rites. **

Sources: *Journal of Social History, volume 28, 1995, article by Sally Scully, Department of History at San Francisco University. **Compendium Maleficarum 1608.
Drawing Down The Moon

In the writings of the ancient Roman poet Horace (Epode 17) we find these words (addressed to Canidia): (the Witch Canidia replies) ... must I, who can move waxen images and draw down the moon from the sky by my spells, who can raise the vaporous dead, and mix a draught of love lament the effect of my art, availing nothing upon you?"
The Four Elements

Empedocles (a student of the teachings of Pythagoras) was historically the first person known to have taught the concept of the Four Elements as a single cohesive doctrine. He lived around 475 BC in his native homeland of Sicily where he presented the teachings concerning the four elements as the four-fold root of all things.

Source: Ancient Philosophy, Mystery, and Magic; Empedocles and the Pythagorean Tradition by Peter Kingsley, Oxford University Press 1995.

The Elementals

In book one, chapter 18 , of the Compendium Maleficarum by Francesco Guazzo (1609) we read that Italian witches work with spirits of certain specific natures. Guazzo lists these as: fiery, aerial, terrestrial and water. Here, of course, are the elemental creatures also related to modern Wiccan beliefs.

Source: Compendium Maleficarum, 1608

The Ritual Circle

Italian witches employed beech twigs to trace ritual circles in the ground. Such a circle is depicted in a 17th century Italian woodcut by Francesco Guazzo.

Sources: Compendium Maleficarum, 1608.

Duotheism

In classic Roman and Greek concepts we find the Divine Couple imagery in such matings as Jupiter and Juno, Zeus and Hera. At the second lectisternium in 217 BC, for the first time in their history, the Romans selected a dozen deities and grouped them together into couples according to the Hellenic pattern. From this celebration arose the Roman version of the Twelve Principle Deities in Roman Mythology. Folklorist Charles wrote if Italian Witches who worshipped Diana and her consort the Roman god Lucifer, the morning star.

Sources: Etruscan Roman Remains. Roman and European Mythologies compiled by Yves Bonnefoy, University of Chicago Press, 1992.

The Watchers

In Italian Witchcraft the beings known as the Grigori (Watchers) are an integral aspect of the belief system. Over the course of many centuries the initiates of Italian Witchcraft have developed various signs and gestures that are recognized by the Grigori and indicate the presence of a trained witch of the Old Religion. This intimate relationship between Grigori and initiate has been forged and nurtured by the Strega for countless generations. The ritual display of prescribed signs and gestures at the appropriate quarter grants passage by the Grigori and allows the initiate to gain access to the portals that lead directly into the Otherworld realms.

As guardians of the portals to such realms as the astral plane, the Grigori can negate magickal energy from manifesting there. This results in a failed magickal work or spell. The reasons why the guardians might intercede in such a manner are varied, but the Grigori bear the title "guardians" for good reason. Non-initiates of authentic forms of Italian Witchcraft, and those to whom these inner mysteries have yet to reveal themselves, often dispute the role of the Grigori (if not their existence itself).

Another erroneous claim made by non-initiates is that initiates of Italian Witchcraft believe their actions are "judged" by the Grigori, which is untrue and is based upon ignorance of authentic Italian witch beliefs and practices. The appearance of the essential Grigori or Watcher concept, in the literature on Italic paganism, dates back to archaic Roman religion, which itself is derived from the Etruscans. Ovid, in his work titled Fausti, calls the Lare the "night watchmen." In archaic Roman religion small towers were built at the crossroads and an altar was set before them upon which offerings were given to the Lare. The Lare were guardian spirits associated with these towers and with demarcation in general, as well as seasonal themes related to agriculture.

In the early Stellar Cults of Mesopotamia there were four "royal" stars called the Watchers. Each one of these stars "ruled" over one of the four cardinal points common to Astrology. This particular system would date from approximately 3000 BC. The Star Aldebaran, when it marked the Vernal Equinox, held the position of Watcher of the East. Regulus, marking the Summer Solstice, was Watcher of the South. Antares, marking the Autumn Equinox, was Watcher of the West. Fomalhaut, marking the Winter Solstice, was Watcher of the North.

In Charles Leland's book Aradia he recounts the tale of "The Children of Diana, or how the fairies were born," in which it is stated that Diana created "the great spirits of the stars." In this book we also find a reference to an elder race: "...Then Diana went to the Fathers of the Beginning, to the Mothers, the Spirits who were before the first spirit, and lamented unto them that she could not prevail with Dianus. And they praised her for her courage; they told her that to rise she must fall; to become the chief of goddesses she must become a mortal."

Sources: Dumezil, Georges. Archaic Roman Religion. Baltimore and London: John Hopkins University Press, 1996, volume 1, page 343-344).

The Lure of the Heavens; A History of Astrology by Donald Papon, Weiser 1972.

Star Names; Their Lore and Meaning by Richard Allen, Dover Publications 1963.

Aradia, Gospel of the Witches by Charles Leland. 1963.

Three Degrees of Initiation

Italian Masonic group known as the Carbonari (circa 1820) had three degrees of initiation marked by colored cords or ribbons: blue, red and black. A triangle marked the first degreelevel. The Carbonari claimed to have been based upon the Mystery Cult of Mithra.

Source: A History of Secret Societies by Arkon Daraul, Citadel Press 1961.

Structure of the Circle Ritual

It is interesting to note that in the Essay on the Mysteries of Eleusis, by M. Ouvaroff, we find passages from the ancient philosopher Porphyry who reveals that the symbols of the Greek and Roman Eleusinian Mysteries included the circle, triangle and cone which are all aspects of Wiccan rites. Source: The Secret Teachings of All Ages by Manly Hall, Philosophical Research Society 1962. The Northern Orientation of Ritual The Etruscans who occupied central Italy (from whom the Romans borrowed heavily) placed their deities into quarter associations. To the north was the chief god Tinia (and his consort Uni) who was king of the gods. The north was divided up into four sections which spanned from the north to the east quarter. In the east (the furthest extension of the northeast placement) dwelled the twelve major gods and goddesses of Etruscan religion. In the south were placed the lesser gods and nature spirits. In the west were placed the deities of Death and the Underworld. In this Etruscan view of the Cosmos we have the earliest account of Italic beliefs associated with the four quarters.

Source: Roman and European Mythologies complied by Yves Bonnefoy, University of Chicago Press 1992.

Conduct of the Ritual by a Priest, Priestess and Maiden

Stucco relief from the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii Italy depicts a woman leading a blindfolded initiate assisted by a silenus priest and a female attendant (relief from the Farnesina 30-25 BC Rome, National Museum). The ancient cults of Roman typically involved both priests and priestesses with their attendant maidens. The Mystery Cult of Dionysus at Pompeii is a classic example depicted on murals.

Source: Mystery Religions in the Ancient World by Joscelyn Godwin, Harper & Row 1981.

The Descent of the Goddess to the Underworld

The Eleusinian Mysteries, originating in Greece, involve themes of descent and ascent, loss and regain, light and darkness, and the cycles of life and death. Author Manly Hall, the author tells that the rites associated with these Mysteries were performed at midnight during the Spring and Autumn Equinoxes. Hall reports that the Eleusinian Mysteries spread to Rome and Britain where initiations into this cult were performed in both countries. The Eleusinian Cult contained the Greater Mysteries and the Lesser Mysteries. The Lesser dealt with the abduction of Persephone by the Underworld God, a classic descent myth. The Greater Mysteries dealt with the Quest for the return of the Goddess, and the rites were performed in honor of Ceres (an Agricultural Goddess who was Patron of the Mysteries). In the general mythos, Persephone descends into the Underworld and encounters its Lord. The life of the world disappears with Her and the first autumn and winter befalls the earth. The Lord of the Underworld falls in love with the Goddess and wants to keep Her in His realm. Ceres intervenes on Her behalf and pleads with the Underworld Lord to release Persephone. At first He refuses because Persephone has eaten the seeds of the pomegranate, an ancient symbol of the male seed (as we see in the Wiccan Descent Legend they loved and were One). Eventually He agrees on the condition that She returns again to His realm for half of each year (cycle of the seasons).

Source: The Secret Teachings of All Ages by Manly Hall, Philosophical Research Society 1962.

Lunar Orientation and Full Moon Meetings

The writings of the ancient Roman poet Horace give us perhaps the earliest accounts of Italian Witches and their connection to a lunar cult. In the Epodes of Horace, written around 30 BC, he tells the tale of an Italian Witch named Canidia. Horace says that Proserpine and Diana grant power to witches who worship them, and that witches gather in secret to perform the mysteries associated with their worship. He speaks of a Witches' book of Incantations (Libros Carminum) through which the Moon may be "called down" from the sky. Other ancient Roman writers such as Lucan and Ovid produced works which clearly support the same theme. In Charles Leland's Aradia; Gospel of the Witches (1890) we also find a reference to Italian Witches gathering for lunar rites:

"Whenever ye have need of anything, once in the month and when the moon is full, ye shall assemble in some secret place, or in a forest all together join to adore the potent spirit of your queen, my mother, great Diana. She who fain would learn all sorcery yet has not won its deepest secrets, them my mother will teach her, in truth all things as yet unknown. And ye shall be freed from slavery, and so ye shall be free in everything; and as a sign that ye are truly free, ye shall be naked in your rites, both men and women also..."

Sources: Epodes of Horace, 30 BC. Aradia, Gospel of the Witches, Charles Leland.